Vihaan Kumar v. State of Haryana (2025)

Violations of Constitutional Rights in Arrest and Custody Background: Vihaan Kumar was arrested without being informed of reasons, and later chained to a hospital bed. He challenged violations of Article 21 and 22(1).
Judgement

Declared the arrest illegal due to lack of meaningful communication.; Ruled that handcuffing violated human dignity.; Clarified that subsequent legal processes cannot validate a constitutionally illegal arrest.
Impact

Strengthened procedural safeguards for personal liberty.; Condemned inhumane treatment in custody.; Demanded new arrest and detention protocols.
Vihaan Kumar v. State of Haryana (2025) –

Contemporary Relevance and Analytical Angle for UPSC; Central to GS2 answers on police reforms, due process and human dignity.; Useful in evaluating custodial violence and procedural justice.; Cited in debates on Article 21’s expanding scope and abuse of power.; Strong material for Essays on rule of law and dignity in criminal justice.

1.7 Supriyo v. Union of India (2023) – Same-Sex Marriage and

Supriyo v. Union of India (2023) – Same-Sex

Contemporary Relevance and Analytical Angle for UPSC; Central to GS2 answers on LGBTQIA+ rights, equality and civil liberties.; Cited in debates on marriage equality, personal liberty vs. societal morality.; Useful in essays on constitutional morality, social reform and evolving family structures.

1.10 Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) – Right to Internet

Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020)

Right to Internet Access as a Fundamental Right
Background

After the abrogation of Article 370, J&K witnessed an internet shutdown. Journalist Anuradha Bhasin challenged it as violating freedom of expression, profession, and access to information.
Impact

Defined internet as a public necessity.; Ensured accountability in digital restrictions.; Laid groundwork for digital rights jurisprudence.
Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) – Right to

Frames debates on State control vs. digital freedoms in modern democracies.; Enhances understanding of judicial application of proportionality in tech-driven governance.

1.13 Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018)– Decriminalising

Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018)–

Frames debates on Uniform Civil Code, queer civil rights, and anti-discrimination laws.; Cited in demands for marriage equality, trans rights and inclusive education.; Powerful case to explore constitutional morality vs. societal norms in democracy.

1.14 Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2018)

Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala

Religious Freedom vs. Gender Equality Background: The case challenged Rule 3(b) of Kerala Worship Rules (1965) that barred women aged 10–50 years from entering Sabarimala Temple, citing traditions linked to the celibacy of Lord Ayyappan. Referred to a Constitution Bench.
Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala

Reiterated that personal; laws are subject to; constitutional scrutiny.
Impact

Asserted constitutional supremacy over religious customs.; Advanced inclusive access to religious spaces.; Sparked public discourse on judicial activism vs. religious autonomy.
Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala

Cited in debates on women’s entry in mosques, triple talaq, and Female Genital Mutilation.; Useful in analysing conflict between Articles 25 and 14/15.; Supports Essay arguments on reform within religious institutions.

1.15 Hadiya v. Union of India (2018)– Freedom of Religion and

Hadiya v. Union of India (2018)– Freedom of

Recognized conversion and interfaith marriages as protected freedoms under Articles 25 and 21. Impact:; Strengthened the legal recognition of individual autonomy in personal decisions.; Reaffirmed that marriage is a personal domain which is not subject to parental, societal or judicial veto.; Became a landmark case for freedom of belief, women’s agency, and interfaith rights.
Hadiya v. Union of India (2018)– Freedom of

Cited in debates around anti-conversion laws, love jihad laws, and State overreach into private life. Useful in Essay themes on individual autonomy vs. social conservatism and constitutional morality.; Illustrates the limits of judicial paternalism and upholds pluralism and secularism.

1.17 Shreya Singal v. Union of India (2015)– Freedom of Speech vs.

Shreya Singal v. Union of India (2015)– Freedom of

Censorship Background: Two women were arrested under Section 66A of the IT Act for posting critical remarks online. The PIL challenged vague terminology and criminalisation of free digital speech, invoking Article 19(1)(a).

1.19 Aruna Shanbaug v. Union of India (2011) – Passive Euthanasia &

Aruna Shanbaug v. Union of India (2011)

Passive Euthanasia & Right to Die with Dignity Background: Aruna Shanbaug, a nurse left in a persistent vegetative state for 42 years, became the face of India’s legal discourse on euthanasia. The plea for mercy killing raised profound questions about life, suffering, and constitutional rights under Article 21.

1.20 Vishaka & Ors v. State of Rajasthan & Ors (1997) – Sexual

Impact

Laid the foundation for Article 21A (86th Amendment, 2002).; Strengthened state responsibility for universal access.; Precursor to Unnikrishnan (1993) and RTE Act (2009).

1.24 M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1986) - Birth of Absolute

M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1986)

Birth of Absolute Liability & Environmental Jurisprudence Background: A leak of oleum gas from Shriram Fertilizers (Delhi) caused serious harm. M.C. Mehta filed a PIL under Article 32, raising questions about industrial safety, environment, and public health.

1.27 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) - Redefining Personal

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)

Redefining Personal Liberty under Article

1.28 Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)- Birth of the

Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)-

Basic Structure Doctrine Background: Kesavananda Bharati, a religious head, challenged the Kerala Land Reforms Act for violating Article 26 (religious freedom). The case tested Parliament's amending power following conflicts between Shankari Prasad, Sajjan Singh and Golaknath. Judgement:; Parliament can amend any part, but not the Basic Structure.; Preamble is part of the Constitution.; Amendment is not "law" under…

1.29 Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967) - Can Parliament Amend

Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967)

Can Parliament Amend Fundamental Rights? Background: Golaknath challenged the Punjab Land Tenure law for violating Right to Property. He questioned if Parliament could amend Part III Fundamental Rights, contradicting prior rulings in Shankari Prasad (1951) and Sajjan Singh (1965).
Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967) - Can

Key Supreme Court Judgements 16
Judgement

SC declared Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights.; It held that constitutional amendments are "law" under Article 13(2).; Overruled Shankari Prasad and Sajjan Singh. Impact:; Led to the 24th Constitutional Amendment Act (1971)—excluded amendments from Article 13.; Set the stage for the Kesavananda Bharati (1973) case and Basic Structure Doctrine.; Fffirst major blow to Parliamentary Supremacy in independent…
Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967) - Can

Key to questions on Basic Structure, judicial review and limits of constituent power.; Supports debates on constitutionalism vs. majoritarianism.; Can be cited in GS2 answers on checks and balances in constitutional democracy.

2.1 Preamble of the Indian Constitution

Preamble of the Indian Constitution Berubari Union

Preamble not part of Constitution; The Court ruled that the Preamble is not a part of the Constitution. The Preamble cannot alter constitutional provisions and was excluded from the amendment process.; Limited the Preamble's role in constitutional interpretation. Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): Part of Constitution and Amendable; The Preamble is part of the Constitution. The Court upheld the Preamble's role in…

2.2 Basic Structure of the Constitution

Basic Structure of the Constitution Kesavananda

The Supreme Court ruled that Parliament's amending power is subject to the "Basic Structure" of the Constitution. The basic structure doctrine is a common law legal doctrine that the constitution of a sovereign state has certain characteristics that cannot be erased by its legislature. Waman Rao Case (1981): SC reiterated the Basic Structure Doctrine, applying it only to amendments after Kesavananda Bharati (1973).…
Basic Structure of the Constitution

Key Supreme Court Judgements 19
Basic Structure of the Constitution

These cases can be quoted in questions on role of Judiciary in protecting rights, democracy and constitution.

2.3 Amendability of Fundamental Rights

Amendability of Fundamental Rights Shankari Prasad

The Court asserted that Parliament's power to amend under Article 368 includes the power to amend Fundamental Rights guaranteed in Part III of the Constitution. Sajjan Singh Case (1965): The case reinforced Parliament's authority to amend any part of the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights. Golaknath Case (1967): The Court ruled that Parliament could not amend Fundamental Rights thereby asserting that such…

2.8 Fundamental Rights Vs Directive Principles

Fundamental Rights Vs Directive Principles

Background: The Supreme Court ruled that in case of a conflict between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, Fundamental Rights would prevail.; Judgment established the supremacy of Fundamental Rights over Directive Principles in case of conflict.
Golak Nath V. The State of Punjab (1967)

The Court ruled that Fundamental Rights cannot be abridged or diluted to implement Directive Principles.; Judgment affirmed that the Constitution cannot be amended to limit or infringe upon Fundamental Rights in favor of Directive Principles.
Minerva Mills V. Union of India (1980)

The Supreme Court struck down provisions of the 42nd Amendment Act (1976) that sought to give priority to Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights.; Judgment held that there is no conflict between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles; they are complementary and must be balanced.
Fundamental Rights Vs Directive Principles

Use Minerva Mills to discuss the harmony between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, emphasizing their complementary nature in the Constitution.

2.14 Office of Profit

Office of Profit Jaya Bachchan V. Union of India

The case dealt with the definition and scope of the term "Office of Profit" under the Constitution.; SC defined "Office of Profit" as an office capable of yielding a profit or pecuniary gain. It clarified that the potential for profit, rather than the actual receipt of profit, is the key factor in determining an office of profit. U.C. Raman V. P.T.A. Rahim Case (2014):; The case examined the power of legislatures to…

2.20 Corruption, Bureaucracy & Politics Nexus

Corruption, Bureaucracy & Politics Nexus

The SC held that employment based on political loyalties violates Articles 14 and 16, which guarantee equality and non-discrimination in public service.; Strengthened the principle of merit-based appointments and challenged political favoritism in government employment.
Upendra Narayan Singh Case (2009)

The SC observed that Public Service Commissions, which are constitutionally mandated to be independent, had become politicized, with recruitment influenced by political loyalties.; Highlighted the corruption and politicization of recruitment processes in Public Service Commissions, stressing the need for impartiality and independence.

2.22 Environment vs Tribal Rights

Environment vs Tribal Rights

Refer to Samatha V. State of Andhra Pradesh to discuss the constitutional protection of tribal land rights and livelihoods.; Can be quoted in debates on the balance between tribal displacement for conservation and ensuring their fundamental rights.

3 CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES AND JUDICIAL

3 CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES AND JUDICIAL

DOCTRINES 3.1 Doctrine of Basic Structure; Definition: The basic structure doctrine is a common law legal doctrine that the constitution of a sovereign state has certain characteristics that cannot be erased by its legislature.; Judicial Foundation:; Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): Supreme Court held that Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the Constitution.; Minerva Mills Case (1980): Emphasized the…

3.1 Doctrine of Basic Structure

Doctrine of Basic Structure

Kesavananda Bharati as a landmark case to demonstrate how the judiciary safeguards constitutional integrity. Relate it to contemporary cases such as Sabarimala.
Doctrine of Judicial Review Definition

The judiciary's authority to examine the constitutionality of laws and governmental actions. It ensures that laws by the Executive and Legislature align with the Constitution. This doctrine is implicitly mentioned in Article 13 of the Indian Constitution(All laws are inconsistent with or in derogation of the Fundamental Rights shall be null and void).; Judicial Foundation:; Marbury v. Madison (U.S.): Pioneered…
Doctrine of Basic Structure

safeguarding constitutional rights. Discuss the landmark Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain case and how judicial review evolved in the context of the Right to Privacy case.
Doctrine of Basic Structure

Key Supreme Court Judgements 36

3.5 Procedure Established by Law

Procedure Established by Law Definition

Enshrined in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, it states, "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law." This means that a person can only be deprived of their liberty if the law, enacted by the legislature, follows the correct legal procedure, regardless of the fairness or reasonableness of the law.

3.7 Doctrine of Constitutional Morality

Doctrine of Constitutional Morality Definition

Stresses adherence to constitutional principles that protect minorities and democratic values, irrespective of majority views. Challenges the notion of majoritarianism by upholding fundamental rights.; Key Cases:; Sabarimala Case (2018): Court upheld gender equality and freedom of religion, challenging age-old practices.; Kesavananda Bharati Case: Protected the Constitution's basic structure against majoritarian…
Doctrine of Constitutional Morality

protection individual and group rights by citing Sabarimala and Kesavananda Bharati.

1 IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION

1 IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION

Related Cases; Maneka Gandhi (1978), KS Puttaswamy (2017); Supriyo Chakraborty v. UoI (2023) : Right to marry is not recognised as a fundamental right, case related to recognition of same sex marriage.; Amar Jain v. Union of India (2025) : Recognised inclusive digital access as part of right to life and dignity; directed accessible digital KYC for persons with disabilities.
Article 37

Application of the Directive Principles.; The principles in this Part are not enforceable by courts but are fundamental to the country's governance; It is the duty of the State to apply these principles when making laws.

Constitutional article + linked cases/Acts/amendments

Article 11: Parliament to regulate the right of

Related Acts; Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 Fundamental Rights
Article 13: Laws inconsistent with or in derogation

Existing laws that conflict with Fundamental Rights are void to that extent.; The State cannot enact laws that infringe upon the Fundamental Rights and such laws will be void.; This does not apply to constitutional amendments under Article 368 Related Cases; Shankari Prasad v. Union of India (1951),; Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967); Kesavananda Bharati vs State of Kerala (1973) Right to Equality (Article 14-18)
Article 14: Equality before Law

The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.
Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination

The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.; The state can make special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes.; The state can make special provisions in educational institutions, including private ones, other than minority institutions.; The state can make provisions for a 10% reservation for…
Article 16: Equality of Opportunity in matters of

There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters of employment or appointment to any office under the State. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 1 Related Cases; Indra Sawhney (1992); M. Nagraj v. Union of India (2006) Amendments; 77th (1995), 81st (2000), 85th (2001) and 103rd (2019) .
Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability

Article 17 abolishes "untouchability" and forbids its practice in any form, making any disability arising from it illegal and punishable.; Supreme Court ruled that Article 17 applies against private individuals Related Cases; People's Union for Democratic Rights case(1982) Related Acts; Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955. Amendments; 77th (1995), 81st (2000), 85th (2001) and 103rd (2019). Right to Freedom (Article…
Constitutional article + linked

movement, residence, profession etc.; Reasonable Restrictions:; Sovereignty and integrity of India, security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency, morality, contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to an offence.; General public interest or protection of Scheduled Tribes, etc. Related Cases; Imran Pratapgadhi Case : Speech causing discomfort or offence remains protected…
Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for

No Ex Post Facto Law; No Double Jeopardy; No Self-incrimination Related Cases; Maqbool Hussain v. State of Bombay (1950)
Article 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty.

No person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law.; Articles 20 and 21 could not be suspended during a national emergency( 44th CAA); Article 359 - Suspension of the enforcement of fundamental rights during Emergencies IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 2 Related Cases; Maneka Gandhi (1978), KS Puttaswamy (2017); Supriyo Chakraborty v. UoI (2023) : Right…
Article 21A: Right to Education

The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such a manner as the State may determine.; Provision added by the 86th CAA of 2002.
Article 22: Protection against Arrest and Detention

Preventive detention beyond three months requires Advisory Board approval, unless otherwise legislated by Parliament. Related Cases; Ankul Chandra Pradhan case (1997); Ameena Begum case (2023) Right against Exploitation ( Article - 23 & 24 )
Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings

Traffic in human beings, begar, and similar forms of forced labour are prohibited. Any violation is punishable by law. Related Cases; Sanjit Roy v. The State of Rajasthan (1983) Related Acts; Equal Remuneration Act 1976; the Minimum Wages Act 1948. Amendments; 1st CAA 1951, 16th CAA 1963, 44th CAA 1978.
Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children

No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed in any factory, mine, or other hazardous employment. Related Cases; MC Mehta vs State of Tamil Nadu (1996). Related Acts; The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986; Commission for Protection of Child Rights Act 2005. Other info; Bachpan Bachao Andolan, started in 1980 by Nobel Laureate Kailash Satyarthi, is India's largest movement advocating…
Constitutional article + linked

State by making law :; can regulate economic,fffinancial,political or secular activities (TTD Act,1932).; provide for social welfare and reform, including opening Hindu institutions to all Hindus (Sabarimala Temple Entry case).
Article 26: Freedom to manage Religious Affairs.

Religious denominations can establish and maintain institutions, manage religious affairs, and own property.; These rights are subject to public order, morality, health, and adherence to the law. Related Cases; TMA Pai Foundation v. The State of Karnataka (2003); N. Adithayan v. Travancore Devaswom Board (2002)
Article 27: Freedom as to Payment of Taxes for the

This provision prohibits only the levy of a tax, not a fee. Therefore, a fee can be charged to pilgrims for special services or safety measures. Related Cases; Sri Jagannath v. The State of Orissa (1954).
Constitutional article + linked

Educational Institutions Cultural and Educational Rights ( Article - 29 & 30 )
Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities.

Any citizen group with a distinct language, script, or culture has the right to preserve it. Related; Animal Welfare Board v. Union of India (2014) (Jallikattu case). Cases
Article 30: Right of Minorities to Establish and

Minorities, based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. Related; AMU minority status case (2002), S.P. Mittal v. Union of India (1983) Cases; TMA Pai case (2003) : Minority institutions providing formal education under ambit of Government rules and regulation for the same set for private institutions.
Article 32: Constitutional Remedies for Enforcement

This right provides for the Judicial Review.; Dr. Ambedkar : An Article without which this constitution would be a nullity. It is the very soul of the Constitution and the very heart of it. Related Cases; ADM Jabalpur case (1976); Bharati Reddy v. The State Of Karnataka (2018).; Power of Parliament to modify the Fundamental Rights in their application to Forces, etc. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 4
Article 37: Application of the Directive Principles.

The principles in this Part are not enforceable by courts but are fundamental to the country's governance; It is the duty of the State to apply these principles when making laws.
Constitutional article + linked

by ensuring a just social order.; by minimising inequalities among individuals and also region-wise. Amendments; 44th CAA 1978
Article 39: Certain principles of policy to be

Ensure equal livelihood rights for men and women.; Distribute resources for the common good.; Prevent wealth concentration.; Ensure equal pay for equal work for both men and women; Protect workers' health and prevent child labour.; Provide children with healthy development and protect them from exploitation. Related Cases; State of Karnataka vs Shri Ranganatha Reddy (1977); Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Company vs…
Article 39A: Equal justice and free legal aid

The State shall ensure that the legal system promotes justice based on equal opportunity and provides free legal aid to prevent denial of justice due to economic or other disabilities. Related Cases; Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979). Related Acts; The Legal Services Authorities Act 1987. Amendments; 42nd CAA
Article 40: Organisation of Village Panchayats

The State shall organise village panchayats and grant them the necessary powers to function as units of self-government. Amendments; 73rd and 74th CAA,1992.
Article 41: Right to work, education, and public

Related Acts; Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme; Annapurna scheme; Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme.
Article 43: Living wage, etc. for workers

IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 5; The State shall ensure a living wage, decent work conditions, and access to leisure and cultural opportunities for all workers, and promote cottage industries in rural areas. Related Acts; MGNREGA
Article 43B: Promotion of co-operative societies.

Related Acts; The Khadi and Village Industries Commission Act 1956. Amendments; Added by 42nd CAA
Article 44: Uniform civil code for the citizens.

The State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India.
Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic

The State shall promote the educational and economic interests of weaker sections and protect them from social injustice and exploitation. Related Acts; Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955); Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Related Cases; Champakaran Dorairajan (1951) - this led to 1st CAA and addressed the country's reservation programme.
Constitutional article + linked

Amendments; Added by 42nd CAA Related Acts; Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
Article 50: Separation of the judiciary from the

Related Acts; The Criminal Procedure Code 1973. Fundamental Duties Article-51A: Fundamental Duties of Citizens Amendments; 42nd CAA 1976; 86th CAA 2002 Related Acts; Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971; Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955. Related Cases; Shri Rangnath Mishra v. Union of India (2003); AIIMS Students Union v. AIIMS (2001) IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 6
Article 61: Procedure for impeachment of the

The President can be impeached by either House of Parliament for violating the Constitution.
Constitutional article + linked

of Parliament) ; Also gives eligibility criteria for the Vice President.
Constitutional article + linked

years from the date on which he enters upon his office).
Constitutional article + linked

of person elected to fill casual vacancy.; An election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of Vice-President shall be completed before the expiration of the term.
Constitutional article + linked

for:; Punishments by Court Martial.; Offences against Union executive power laws.; Death sentences. Union Ministers and Attorney General Article 74:; Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President.; The advice given by Ministers to the President shall not be questioned in any court Amendments; 42nd CAA, 44th CAA.
Article 76: Attorney-General for India

It shall be the duty of the Attorney-General to give advice to the Government of India upon such legal matters.
Article 79: Constitution of Parliament.

There shall be a Parliament for the Union consisting of the President and two Houses: the Council of States and the House of the People.
Article 82: Readjustment after each census.

Upon each census, the allocation of seats and division of constituencies in the House of the People shall be readjusted by such authority and manner as determined by Parliament by law. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 7 Amendments; 42nd CAA 1976, 84th CAA 2001, 87th CAA 2003 Related Acts; The Delimitation Commission Act 1952, 1963, 1973, 2002
Constitutional article + linked

general election to the House of the People and at the commencement of the fffirst session of each year).
Article 89: The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the

The Vice-President of India is the ex officio Chairman of the Council of States. Article 91:; Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of or to act as the Chairman; If the Chairman's office is vacant or the Vice-President is acting as President, the Deputy Chairman performs the duties.
Article 93: The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the

Related cases; Kihoto Hollohan (1992); Manipur Legislative Assembly case (2020).
Constitutional article + linked

office is under consideration. Related cases; Nabam Rebia case (2016)-a speaker will be disabled from deciding disqualification petitions under the anti-defection law if a notice for their removal is pending.
Article 102: Disqualifications for membership

Amendments; 52nd CAA 1985 Related Acts; The Representation of the People Act, 1951 Related cases; Lily Thomas v. Union of India (2013); Krishnamurthy v. Sivakumar & Ors (2015)
Article 103: Decision on questions as to

Any question regarding the disqualification of a member of either House under Article 102(1) shall be referred to the President, whose decision shall be final.; The President shall obtain and act according to the opinion of the Election Commission. Amendments; 42nd CAA 1976, 44th CAA 1978.
Constitutional article + linked

Related cases; P V Narasimha Rao v State Case (1998); State of Kerala Vs. K. Ajith Case 2021
Article 108: Joint sitting of both Houses in

IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 8
Article 110: Definition of “Money Bills”

The Speaker of the House of the People decides if a Bill is a Money Bill, and the decision is final. Related cases; KS Puttaswamy v Union of India(2017) - SC held Aadhaar Act as money bill. Related Acts; Aadhaar Act 2016 Article 111:; Outlines the procedure for the President's assent to Bills passed by the Parliament. It specifies that a Bill must be presented to the President after being passed by both Houses of…
Article 112: Annual Fffinancial Statement

The President shall cause to be laid before both Houses of Parliament a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Government of India for each fffinancial year.
Article 118: Rules of procedure

Each House of Parliament may make rules for regulating its procedure and the conduct of its business, subject to the provisions of this Constitution.
Article 121: Restriction on discussion in

Parliament shall not discuss the conduct of any Supreme Court or High Court Judge in the discharge of duties.
Article 122: Courts not to inquire into proceedings

The validity of any proceedings in Parliament shall not be questioned on the ground of any alleged procedural irregularity Related Cases; Indira Nehru Gandhi v Raj Narain (1975); Satish Chandra v Speaker, Lok Sabha (2013)
Constitutional article + linked

Related Cases; R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970),; A.K. Roy v. Union of India (1982); D.C. Wadhwa v. State of Bihar (1987).
Article 124: Establishment and constitution of

The Supreme Court of India shall consist of a Chief Justice and up to seven other Judges, unless
Article 129: Supreme Court to be a court of record

The Supreme Court shall be a court of record.; It shall have all the powers of a court of record, including the power to punish for contempt of itself. Related Cases; P.N. Duda v. V P Shiv Shankar & Others (1988). Related Acts; The Contempt of Courts Act (1971)
Constitutional article + linked

the Chief Justice of India may, with the approval of the President, appoint).
Article 131: Original jurisdiction of the Supreme

The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in disputes:; Between the Government of India and one or more States.; Between the Government of India and any State(s) on one side and one or more other States on the other.; Between two or more States.; This jurisdiction covers disputes involving questions of law or fact on which the existence or extent of a legal right depends. Related Cases; State of Madhya Pradesh vs…
Article 137: Review of judgments or orders by the

The Supreme Court shall have the power to review its own judgments or orders, subject to any laws made by Parliament or rules.
Article 139: Conferment on the Supreme Court of

Parliament may by law confer on the Supreme Court the power to issue directions, orders, or writs, for purposes other than those mentioned in Article 32(2).
Constitutional article + linked

of India. Related Cases; State of U.P v. Synthesis & Chemicals Ltd. (1991); Paramjit Kaur v. State of Punjab (2021)
Article 142: Enforcement of decrees and orders of

The Supreme Court may issue orders and decrees for complete justice in any case, enforceable throughout India as prescribed by law or Presidential order. Related acts; Supreme Court (Decrees and Orders) Enforcement Order, 1954 Related cases; Bhopal Gas Tragedy Case (1991); State of Karnataka vs Umadevi (2006); Chandigarh Mayor’s Election case (2024) IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 10
Article 143: Power of the President to consult the

The President may refer to the Supreme Court any question of law or fact that has arisen or is likely to arise, which is of such public importance. Related cases; Jammu and Kashmir Resettlement Act in 1982; Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal in 1992; Ram Janma Bhumi case in 1993 Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Article 148: Comptroller and Auditor General of

There shall be a Comptroller and Auditor-General of India who shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal; Removal: from office in like manner and on the like grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court. Governor
Article 154: Executive power of the state shall be

This article does not prevent Parliament or the State Legislature from conferring functions on any authority subordinate to the Governor by law.
Constitutional article + linked

in certain cases.; Recently the Madras High Court ruled that the Governor is bound by the State Cabinet’s advice while granting remission or premature release of convicts. State Ministers and Advocate General Article 163; Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor.; Except where the Constitution requires him to act in his discretion.; The Governor's decision on whether a matter falls within his…
Article 165: Advocate-General for the State.

The Advocate-General shall advise the State Government on legal matters, perform duties of a legal nature as assigned by the Governor. State Legislature
Article 168: Constitution of Legislature in state

The Legislature shall consist of the Governor and two Houses in states which have legislative councils .; In other States, the Legislature shall consist of the Governor and one House. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 11
Article 169: Abolition or creation of Legislative

Parliament may by law abolish or create a Legislative Council in a State if the Legislative Assembly passes a resolution.
Constitutional article + linked

general election to the Legislative Assembly and at the commencement of the fffirst session of each year).
Article 178: The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the

Every Legislative Assembly of a State shall have Speaker and Deputy Speaker thereof.
Article 192: Decision on questions as to

Governor decides and his decision shall be final.; The Governor must seek and follow the Election Commission's opinion before deciding. Amendments; 42nd CAA 1976, 44th CAA 1978. Related cases; DD Thaisii Vs Election Commission of India (2021).
Article 194: Powers, privileges, etc., of the

Amendments; 42nd CAA 1976, 44th CAA 1978. Related cases; N. Ravi v Speaker, Legislative Assembly (2003).
Article 198: Special procedure in respect of Money

Article 200; The Governor shall give assent, withhold assent, or reserve it for the President's consideration.; If the Bill is repassed and presented again, the Governor shall not withhold assent. Related cases; The State of Tamil Nadu v Governor of Tamil Nadu (2023).
Article 201: Bills reserved for consideration

When a Bill is reserved by the Governor for the consideration of the President, the President shall either assent to the Bill or withhold assent.
Article 202: Annual fffinancial statement.

The Governor shall cause to be laid before the House or Houses of the Legislature of the State, a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of the State for that fffinancial year.
Article 212: Courts not to inquire into proceedings

The validity of any proceedings in the Legislature of a State shall not be called in question on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure. Related cases; Ambika Roy v. The Hon’ble Speaker, West Bengal Legislative Assembly (2021)
Article 213: Power of Governor to promulgate

The Governor may promulgate Ordinances during the recess of the Legislature if satisfied that immediate action is necessary.; certain limitations exist on this power of governor. Related cases; D.C. Wadhwa v. State of Bihar (1987). IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 12
Article 215: High Courts to be courts of record.

Related acts; Contempt of Courts Act 1971.
Article 226: Power of High Courts to issue certain

Amendments; 42nd CAA 1976, 43rd CAA 1977, 44th CAA 1978 Related cases; Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. The Union of India (1984); Common Cause v. Union of India (2018).
Article 227: Power of superintendence over all

Every High Court shall have superintendence over all courts and tribunals throughout the territories in relation to which it exercises jurisdiction. Amendments; 42 CAA 1976, 44th CAA 1978 Related cases; Kirti v. Renu Anand & Ors. 2023. Subordinate Courts
Article 233: Appointment of district judges.

Appointments, postings and promotions of district judges in any State shall be made by the Governor in consultation with the High Court exercising jurisdiction in relation to such State. Related cases; State of Assam v. Ranga Muhammad (1966)
Article 239: Administration of Union Territories

UTs shall be administered by the President acting through an administrator appointed by him with such designation as he may specify. Amendments; 7th CAA 1956 Related cases; Government of NCT of Delhi v Union of India (2017) Article 239A; Creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers or both for certain Union territories; Provision added by the 14th CAA 1962 Related Acts; The Government of Union Territories…
Article 239AA: Special provisions with respect to

The Legislative Assembly shall have power to make laws on matters in the State List or Concurrent List, except those in Entries 1, 2, and 18 of the State List and related entries.; Parliament retains the power to make laws for the Union territory.; Provision added by the 69th CAA 1991. Related Acts; GNCTD Act, 2021 Related cases; Government of NCT of Delhi v Union of India (2017).
Constitutional article + linked

If the Legislature of the UT of Puducherry is not in session, the administrator may promulgate Ordinances with the President's instructions.; Provision added by the 27th CAA 1971 Amendments; 38th CAA 1975, 44th CAA 1978. Related cases; Puducherry Lieutenant Governor case (2019).
Constitutional article + linked

Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Lakshadweep; Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu; Puducherry;); Provided that when any body is created under article 239A to function as a Legislature for the Union territory of Puducherry , the President shall not make any regulation. Panchayats (Part Added by 73rd CAA 1992)
Constitutional article + linked

Amendments; 7th CAA 1956 Related cases; Government of NCT of Delhi v Union of India (2017)
Article 243B: Constitution of Panchayats

Every State shall constitute Panchayats at the village, intermediate, and district levels, Article 243D; Seats shall be reserved in every Panchayat for: (a) the Scheduled Castes (SC), (b) the Scheduled Tribes (ST).; Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes); State Legislatures may also provide reservations for backward…
Constitutional article + linked

fffinancial position of the Panchayats and make recommendations to the Governor. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 14
Article 243K: Elections to the Panchayats.

The superintendence, direction, and control of all elections to the Panchayats shall be vested in a State Election Commission.; The State Election Commission shall have a State Election Commissioner to be appointed by the Governor.
Article 243L: Application to Union territories.

The President may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this Part shall apply to any UT or part thereof, subject to such exceptions and modifications as specified in the notification. Municipalities (Part Added by 74th CAA 1992)
Article 243Q: Constitution of Municipalities.

Every State shall constitute a : (a) A Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area, (b) A Municipal Council for a smaller urban area; (c) A Municipal Corporation for a larger urban area.
Article 243T: Reservation of seats.

Not less than one-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality, including those reserved for SCs and STs, shall be reserved for women, and these seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies.
Article 243Y: Finance Commission.

The Finance Commission constituted under Article 243-I shall also review the fffinancial position of the Municipalities and make recommendations to the Governor
Article 243ZB: Application to Union territories.

The President may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this Part shall apply to any UT or part thereof, subject to such exceptions and modifications as specified in the notification. Cooperative Societies (Part Added by 97th CAA 2011) Article 243ZI; Incorporation of co-operative societies.; The Legislature of a State may, by law, make provisions for the incorporation, regulation and winding up of…
Article 244: Administration of Scheduled Areas and

Amendments; 7th CAA 1956. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 15 Article 244A; Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tribal areas in Assam.; Parliament may, by law, form within the State of Assam an autonomous State comprising all or any of the tribal areas and create for that autonomous State:; Provision added by the 22nd CAA 1969. Centre-State Legislative Relations
Article 245: Extent of laws made by Parliament and

No law made by Parliament to be invalid on the ground that it would have extra-territorial operation.; The Doctrine of Territorial Nexus states that the laws made by a State Legislature are not applicable outside the State, except when there is a sufficient nexus between the state and the object. Related cases; A.H. Wadia v. Income Tax Commissioner (1948), State of Bombay v. RMDC (1952) Article 246; Subject-matter…
Article 248: Residuary powers of legislation.

Parliament has exclusive power to make any law with respect to any matter not enumerated in the Concurrent List or State List.
Constitutional article + linked

Proclamation of Emergency is in operation.
Article 252: Power of Parliament to legislate for

Related acts; Prize Competition Act 1955, Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972.
Article 253: Legislation for giving effect to

Parliament has power to make any law for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any international treaty, agreement or convention. Centre-State Administrative Relations
Article 258A: Power of the States to entrust

Amendments; 7th CAA 1956. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 16 Centre-State Fffinancial Relations
Article 262: Adjudication of disputes relating to

Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute in any inter-State river or river valley. Related acts; River Boards Act 1956,; Inter state River Water Disputes Act 1956 Related cases; Cauvery Dispute.
Article 263: Provisions with respect to an

The President may, by order, establish such a Council, and define its duties, organisation, and procedure. Finance, Property, Contracts And Suits
Article 270: Taxes levied and distributed between

The 16th Finance Commission under the chairmanship of Dr. Arvind Panagariya has submitted its report for the period of 2026-31. The Central government has accepted its recommendations with respect to devolution of funds from Centre to States. Article 279A; Goods and Services Tax Council.; Provision added by 101st CAA 2016. Related cases; Pradeep Goyal versus Union of India & Ors. (2022)
Article 280: Finance Commission.

The President shall, at the expiration of every fifth year or at such earlier time as the President considers necessary, by order constitute a Finance Commission . Amendments; 73rd CAA 1993, 74th CAA 1993.
Article 281: Recommendations of the Finance

The President shall cause every recommendation made by the Finance Commission be laid before each House of Parliament.
Article 293: Borrowing by States.

A State's executive power extends to borrowing within India upon the security of the Consolidated Fund of the State, within limits fixed by the State Legislature Related Acts; FRBM Act, 2003. Related Case; Kerala’s suit against Union 2024. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 17 Right to Property Article 300A; Persons not to be deprived of Property save by authority of law.; Provision added by 44th CAA 1978.…
Article 301: Freedom of trade, commerce and

Related cases; G.K. Krishnan v. State of Tamil Nadu (1975)
Article 304: Restrictions on trade, commerce and

Current Context: The SC invoked Article 304(a) while quashing a 2007 Rajasthan government notification granting exemption from payment of value-added tax (VAT) on sale of locally made asbestos cement sheets and bricks. Public Service Commission
Article 312: All-India services

Article 315; Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States.; There shall be a Public Service Commission for the Union and a Public Service Commission for each State. Article 320; Functions of Public Service Commissions.; It shall be the duty of the Union and the State Public Service Commissions to conduct examinations for appointments to the services of the Union and of the State respectively.…
Constitutional article + linked

Commission. Amendments; 19th CAA 1966. Related Act; The Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and 'Transaction of Business) Act 1991 Related cases; Anoop Baranwal case (2023).; T.N. Seshan v. Union of India (1995)
Constitutional article + linked

roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex. Related cases; Praveen Kumar Chaudhary v. Election Commission of India (2019).; Association for Democratic Reforms v. Election Commission of India, 2025– 26 : Upheld ECI’s power over Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls; Aadhaar may support identity but not citizenship.
Constitutional article + linked

the basis of adult suffrage. Amendments; 61st CAA 1988 Related Acts; Representation of the People Act (RPA) 1950. Related cases; Jyoti Basu & Others v. Debi Ghosal & Others (1982); Anoop Baranwal case (2023). Article 327:; Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elections to Legislatures; Parliament may from time to time by law make provision with respect to all matters relating to elections to either…
Article 329: Bar to interference by courts in

Amendments; 39th CAA 1975, 44th CAA 1978. Related Acts; Ponnuswamy judgement (1952); K. Venkatachalam vs. A. Swamickan (1999). Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes
Constitutional article + linked

People. Amendments; 51st CAA 1984, 42nd CAA 1976, 84th CAA 2001. Related Act; Soosai vs. Union of India (1985); Indra Sawhney Case (1992).
Constitutional article + linked

Assemblies of the States. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 19 Article 335:; Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts; The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in appointment to services shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration.
Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled

Amendments; 65th CAA 1990, 89th CAA 2003 Article 338A; National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.; Provision added by 89th CAA 2003. Related cases; M. Nagaraj vs. Union of India (2006), LIC v. NCSC case (2022) Article 338B; National Commission for Backward Classes; Provision added by 102nd CAA 2018. Amendments; 105th CAA 2021. Related Acts; National Commission for Backward Classes Act, 1993. Related cases; Maratha…
Article 341: Scheduled Castes.

The President may, with respect to any State or Union territory, and where it is a State, after consultation with the Governor, specify the castes, races or tribes which shall for the purposes of this Constitution be deemed to be Scheduled Castes in relation to that State or Union territory. Official Language
Article 343: Official language of the Union

Related Acts; Official Languages Act 1963
Constitutional article + linked

promote the spread of the Hindi language.
Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency.

National emergency can be declared on the basis of war, external aggression or armed rebellion. Amendments; 38th CAA 1975, 42nd CAA 1976, 44th CAA 1978. Related case; Minerva Mills case (1980).
Constitutional article + linked

Related case; Sarbananda Sonowal v. Union of India (2005); S. R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) Article 356; Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States.; If the President, on receipt of a report from the Governor of a State or otherwise, is satisfied that the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution, the President may issue a…
Constitutional article + linked

etc.; Ladakh groups and the Centre discussed Article 371-like constitutional safeguards to protect Ladakh’s land, jobs, culture and local autonomy. IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE CONSTITUTION 21

Important Constitutional Amendment: key change and UPSC relevance

9th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1960 Retired

Cession of Berubari Union: Provided for as ad hoc Judges in the Supreme Court. the cession of Berubari Union in West
18th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1966

Bengal to Pakistan as per the Indo- Pakistan Agreement (1958).; Clarification on State Formation: The Amendment clarified that the power of
10th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1961 Parliament

Incorporation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli: includes the power to create a new State or Dadra and Nagar Haveli were incorporated Union Territory by uniting part of a State into the Indian Union by this amendment. or Union Territory with another State or; Amendment of the Fffirst Schedule: The Fffirst Union Territory. Schedule of the Constitution was amended to include Dadra and Nagar Haveli as part of 22nd…
12th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1962

the State of Assam.; Incorporation of Goa, Daman, and Diu:; Insertion of Article 244A: Inserted Article Goa, Daman, and Diu were incorporated 244A in the Tenth Schedule, which into the Indian Union by this amendment. provides for the creation of autonomous
13th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1962 states

legislative assemblies for such areas.; Nagaland: Granted statehood to Nagaland, making it the 16th state of India. 24th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971; Special Provisions: The Amendment made; The Amendment reversed the Golak Nath special provisions for Nagaland, allowing for Case (1967), which had held that greater autonomy and addressing the unique cultural and historical concerns of Parliament could not amend…
14th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1962 any part of

Incorporation of Puducherry: Puducherry Fundamental Rights. was formally incorporated into the Indian; The Amendment made it compulsory for Union as a Union Territory. the President to give assent to a; Legislatures and Council of Ministers were Constitutional Amendment Bill. created for the Union Territories of Articles Amended: Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Goa,; Article 368: Clarified Parliament’s power to…
25th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971

Insertion of Article 31C: Added Article Articles Amended: 31C, which ensures that laws aimed at; Article 71: Related to disputes regarding giving effect to the Directive Principles the election of the President and Vice- under Articles 39(b) and 39(c) cannot be President. challenged on the grounds of violating; Article 329: Excluded judicial scrutiny of Fundamental Rights (Articles 14, 19, and elections for…
27th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971

Supreme Court struck down the 39th; Introduced special provisions for the Amendment Act. The Court reinforced the Union Territories (UTs) of Arunachal Doctrine of Basic Structure, holding that Pradesh and Mizoram. Parliament’s power to amend the; Authorised Parliament to create a Constitution is not absolute and cannot alter Legislative Assembly and a Council of the basic structure. Ministers for the state of…
38th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1975 Articles

Made the following non-justiciable (not; Added three new words to the Preamble: subject to judicial review): Socialist, Secular, and Integrity.; Declaration of Emergency by the; Added Part IVA to the Constitution, President. specifying the Fundamental Duties of; Promulgation of Ordinances by the citizens. President, Governors, and; Added Part XIV A dealing with the Administrators of Union Territories. establishment…
39th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1975 aid.

Placed disputes related to the President,; Article 43A: Participation of workers in Vice-President, Prime Minister, and the management of industries. Speaker beyond the jurisdiction of the; Article 48A: Protection of the judiciary. Such disputes were to be decided environment, forests, and wildlife. by an authority determined by Parliament. IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 24; Five subjects were transferred from…
44th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978

The President was made bound to act (Enacted by the Janata Government) according to the advice of the Cabinet.; Restored the original term of Lok Sabha and Other Changes: State Legislative Assemblies to 5 years; The tenure of Lok Sabha and State (reversing the 42nd Amendment's Legislative Assemblies was raised from 5 extension to 6 years). to 6 years.; Removed the reference to the British House; Provision for the…
43rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1977

satisfaction of the President, Governor and; Restored the jurisdiction of the Supreme Administrators final in issuing Ordinances. Court and High Courts with respect to judicial review and the issuance of writs. On National Emergency:; The special powers of Parliament to make; Replaced the term “Internal Disturbance” laws to deal with anti-national activities with “Armed Rebellion” in the context of were removed.…
52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985 Assembly

(Popularly Known as the Anti-Defection Law) Ministers for the National Capital; Disqualification of Defectors: Introduced Territory of Delhi to allow for local provisions for the disqualification of governance. Members of Parliament (MPs) and State Articles Added: Legislatures on the grounds of defection; Article 239AA: Relates to the special from their political party. provisions for the governance of National…
73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992

Exceptions: Allowed for disqualification only if the defection was not justified by; Granted constitutional status to Panchayati reasons like being expelled from the Raj Institutions (PRIs), ensuring their party or joining a new party after a importance in the governance structure. merger.; Added Part-IX of the Constitution titled “The Panchayats”, which defines the framework
61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1989 for local

The voting age was reduced from 21 years to; Introduced the Eleventh Schedule, which 18 years for elections to the Lok Sabha and lists 29 functional items that Panchayats are responsible for, aiming to decentralize State Legislative Assemblies. power and responsibilities. IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 26 Articles Added:; End of 50% Ceiling: Removed the 50%; Article 243-243(O): These articles deal ceiling on…
74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 and OBCs.

Granted constitutional status to Urban
82nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000

Local Bodies (ULBs), similar to the Panchayati Raj Institutions in rural areas.; Allowed relaxations in qualifying marks or; Added Part-IX-A titled “The lowering of evaluation standards for SCs and Municipalities”, which provides the STs in examinations. framework for urban local governance.; Introduced the Twelfth Schedule, listing 18 Related Case: functional items for Municipalities,; S. Vinod Kumar v. Union of…
77th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1995 16(4).

Provided for reservation in promotions for Articles Amended: SCs and STs in government jobs.; Article 335: Relates to the efficiency of Article Added: administration in the context of; Article 16(4A): Allowed for reservation in reservations. promotions for SCs and STs in government jobs, addressing the issue of representation 85th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2001 in higher-level positions.; Provided “Consequential…
81st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000 Ram Bhog

(High Court of Delhi): The court dealt with; Backlog Vacancies: Allowed the consequential seniority in promotions for government to consider unfilled reserved vacancies as a separate class of vacancies to government servants from SCs and STs be filled in the succeeding year(s). under reservation rules. IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 27
86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002 for

Made elementary education a Fundamental into two separate bodies: Right for all children between the ages of 6 1. National Commission for Scheduled and 14. Castes (NCSC); Amendment to Article 45: Changed Article 2. National Commission for Scheduled 45 in the Directive Principles to state that Tribes (NCST) the State shall endeavour to provide early; This division was made to provide more childhood care and education…
87th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003 Limit on

Population Figures for Delimitation:; Total number of ministers, including; The Amendment provided that the PM, cannot exceed 15% of Lok Sabha population figures from the 2001 Census strength. Same applies to State would be used for the readjustment and Assemblies. rationalisation of territorial constituencies; Disqualification for Political Posts: in the States, replacing the 1991 Census; A member disqualified for…
89th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003 Articles

Article 75: Relates to appointment of PM Bifurcation of the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes: and Council of Ministers at the Centre.; The 89th Amendment Act of 2003; Article 164: Relates to appointment of CM bifurcated the existing National Commission and Council of Ministers in States. IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 28 Articles Added:; Promotion of Co-operative Societies; Article…
93rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2005

operative societies.; The Amendment enabled the State to make; Addition of Part IX-B: Part IX-B was added special provisions for socially and to the Constitution, specifically focusing on educationally backward classes, Scheduled "The Co-operative Societies." Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in Articles Amended: educational institutions, including private; Article 19: Relates to the protection of…
99th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2014

that reservations cannot be imposed on unaided private institutions for minorities; National Judicial Appointments or non-minorities. Commission (NJAC): Replaced the Collegium System for judicial appointments, Articles Amended: aiming for transparency and inclusiveness.; Article 15: Prohibits discrimination on the; Supreme Court Ruling (2015): The grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place Supreme Court…
97th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011 Article

High Court judges and transfers.; The Amendment granted Constitutional; Article 231: Establishment of High Courts status to co-operative societies and brought for Union Territories. in several significant changes:; Right to Form Co-operative Societies Articles Added: as a Fundamental Right: The right to; Article 124A: Establishment of NJAC. form co-operative societies was made a; Article 124B: Composition and…

Facts and figures for this syllabus heading.