What are the major challenges to internal security and peace process in the North-Eastern States? Map the various peace accords and agreements initiated by the government in the past decade.

Major challenges to internal security and peace process

• Insurgency and unfinished political settlements: Several insurgent groups continue to operate or retain unresolved political demands despite the decline in violence.
  • Example: The NSCN-IM continues to seek resolution of issues such as a separate Naga flag and constitution, leaving the 2015 Framework Agreement unfinished.

• Ethnic conflict and identity politics: Competition over land, political representation, resources and ethnic identity can transform local disputes into prolonged violence.
  • Example: The Meitei–Kuki-Zo conflict in Manipur since 2023 demonstrated how unresolved identity and land-related tensions can overwhelm existing peace mechanisms.

• Porous international borders and difficult terrain: Mountainous terrain and difficult-to-monitor borders facilitate infiltration, arms trafficking and movement of insurgent groups.
  • Example: The India–Myanmar border provides difficult terrain and cross-border spaces that can be exploited by armed groups.

• Drug and arms trafficking: Proximity to the Golden Triangle creates a strong narcotics–arms–insurgency nexus.

• Migration and demographic anxieties: Migration and refugee flows can intensify competition over land, employment, political representation and cultural identity.
  • Example: The post-2021 Myanmar conflict has generated refugee inflows into states such as Mizoram and Manipur.

• Inter-State boundary disputes: Colonial-era boundaries and competing territorial claims continue to create local tensions.
  • Example: Long-standing disputes between Assam–Mizoram, Assam–Nagaland and Assam–Meghalaya have periodically produced confrontation.

• External and geopolitical pressures: The region's proximity to China, Myanmar and Bangladesh gives local conflicts a wider strategic dimension.
  • Example: China's territorial claims over Arunachal Pradesh add a strategic layer to the region's internal-security concerns.

• Governance and development deficit: Limited employment opportunities, connectivity gaps and perceived political exclusion can sustain alienation even after armed violence declines.

• Information and technological threats: Social media can accelerate misinformation, communal polarisation and mobilisation, while drones and modern communication technologies can aid illicit activities.

Peace accords and agreements: 2015–2025

• 2015 — Naga Framework Agreement | Nagaland: Agreement between the Government of India and NSCN-IM, recognising the unique history and identity of the Nagas and establishing a framework for further negotiations.
  • Current challenge: Differences over a separate Naga flag, constitution and Greater Nagalim continue to delay a final settlement.

• 2020 — Bodo Peace Accord | Assam: Tripartite agreement with NDFB factions aimed at ending the armed Bodo movement and strengthening the Bodoland Territorial Region.
  • Outcome: Former militants were brought into the political mainstream through rehabilitation and democratic participation.

• 2020 — Bru-Reang Agreement | Tripura/Mizoram: Agreement for the permanent settlement and rehabilitation of Bru-Reang displaced families.
  • Outcome: It addressed a long-standing displacement and rehabilitation issue through permanent resettlement.

• 2021 — Karbi Anglong Agreement | Assam: Agreement with Karbi groups to end armed insurgency and strengthen autonomous governance and development in Karbi Anglong.
  • Outcome: Armed groups were brought into the mainstream through surrender, rehabilitation and political arrangements.

• 2022 — Assam–Meghalaya Border Agreement: Partial settlement of the long-standing inter-State boundary dispute.
  • Outcome: Disputes in 6 of the 12 identified areas were resolved through negotiated settlement.

• 2023 — Assam–Arunachal Pradesh Border Agreement: Agreement aimed at resolving the decades-old boundary dispute between the two States.
  • Outcome: It addressed more than 1,200 disputed points along the inter-State boundary.

• 2023 — UNLF Peace Agreement | Manipur: Peace agreement with the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), bringing the group into the mainstream.
  • Outcome: The agreement involved renunciation of violence, surrender of arms and participation in the democratic process.

• 2024 — Tripura Peace Agreement: Agreement involving the Government of India, Tripura government and NLFT/ATTF factions to end armed insurgency and facilitate rehabilitation.
  • Outcome: Surrender of cadres and their rehabilitation formed key elements of the settlement.

• Continuous — Suspension of Operations (SoO): Ceasefire arrangements with armed groups provide space for dialogue and prevent immediate escalation.