4.1 Integrity
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Integrity
Integrity refers to the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles, with a consistency of actions, values, methods, and outcomes.; As per C.S. Lewis, it “is doing the right thing, even when no one is looking.”; Integrity is revealed when people act virtuously regardless of circumstance or consequences.; Integrity has nothing to do with external influences but is regulated by internal compulsions.…
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Integrity
Feature Honesty Integrity Core Value Truthfulness, sincerity Moral uprightness, adherence to prin-ciples, consistency between actions and values Focus Speaking the truth, avoiding deceit Doing what is right, even when inconvenient or difficult Scope Primarily about words and Encompasses thoughts, words, actions, and communication decisions Example Admitting to a mistake, not cheating Returning a lost item, standing…
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Integrity
Example(s); Lord Rama in the Ramayana is a model of integrity, always upholding truth and righteousness even in the face of personal loss.; Following traffic rules even when the Police is absent.; Ensuring quality of deliverables despite excessive workload.; Kautilya using separate lamps for official work & personal work..; Late P.M.Lal Bahadur Shastri: On a visit to a textile mill as Prime Minister, when the owner…
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Integrity
Quote(s); “When you are able to maintain your own highest standards of integrity—regardless of what others may do—you are destined for greatness.”(Napoleon Hill); “Integrity is choosing your thoughts and actions based on values rather than personal gain.” (Chris Karcher)
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Integrity
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4.2 Moral Integrity
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Moral Integrity
Moral integrity refers to maintaining ethical standards and staying true to one’s values, principles, and honesty, even under pressure.; Consistently adhering to ethical principles and doing the right thing, even when it is difficult or inconvenient.
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Moral Integrity
Example; An Indian bureaucrat refusing bribes and reporting corruption despite pressure.; Ratan Tata, former chairman of Tata Group, led the company to exit the tobacco business due to ethical concerns, prioritizing societal well-being over profit—even when it meant fffinancial sacrifice for the corporation
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Moral Integrity
Quote; “Integrity is doing the right thing, even when no one is watching.” (C.S. Lewis); “In matters of principle, stand like a rock.” (Thomas Jefferson)
4.5 Honesty
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Honesty
Honesty is the quality of being truthful, transparent, and straightforward in actions and words, free from deceit.; It is the quality of standing by the truth or being truthful. Example(s); The “Honest Abe” reputation refers to the widely held perception of Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, as a man of exceptional integrity, honesty, and moral character. He is remembered for his truthfulness…
4.6 Impartiality
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Impartiality
Impartiality is the principle of treating all people, groups or viewpoints equally without any bias or favoritism.; It is the quality of being fair, or not being biased or partial towards anything or anyone.; Impartiality is the life of justice, as justice is the life of all good governance.
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Impartiality
Example(s); An impartial team leader allocates tasks based on skills and strengths, not relationships or seniority, ensuring fairness, boosting morale, and fostering a merit-based, highperformance work environment.; Vinod Rai, former CAG, audited government projects like the 2G spectrum scam without political pressure.; Dr.B.R.ambedkar was chosen in Nehru’s cabinet due to his merits despite his personal…
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Impartiality
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4.7 Non-partisanship
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Non-partisanship
Non-partisanship is the principle of avoiding alignment with any particular political party or ideology, especially in public service, to maintain objectivity and neutrality.; Non-partisanship is the principle of remaining neutral and not showing allegiance to any political party or group.; A virtue of staying out of competing groups.(Eg:India during Cold War); It ensures that decisions and actions are made based on…
4.8 Neutrality
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Neutrality
Neutrality is the state of not taking sides in conflicts or disputes and maintaining an unbiased position.; It is the state of not taking sides on any issue, conflict or situation. Example(s); India’s stance of nonalignment during the Cold War era, where it refrained from aligning with either the Soviet Union or the United States.; Mother’s love is regarded as the Highest Manifestation of Neutrality, be it a boy or…
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Neutrality
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4.9 Objectivity
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Objectivity
Objectivity is the quality of being impartial, unbiased and unprejudiced especially when making decisions, judgments, or analyses.; It is the ability to judge based on facts and observations without any personal or institutional biases; and without any external influences.; The goal of objectivity is to see things as they are, not as we wish them to be. Example(s); Kautilya’s Arthashastra is often regarded as an…
4.10 Anonymity
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Anonymity
In terms of public service, anonymity refers to the concealment of an individual’s identity in order to protect their privacy, prevent bias or allow for fair and impartial decision-making.; In terms of Public Service, it refers to staying behind the curtain. It is related to the concepts of Permanence and Neutrality in civil services.. Example(s); Several Doctors, Paramedics and Medical Staff have Anonymously…
4.11 Courage
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Courage
Courage is the ability to confront fear, pain, danger, uncertainty or other forms of adversity with resolve and determination.; Courage is the quality of being brave, fearless, and willing to confront and overcome challenges, difficulties or even danger.; Courage can take many forms from physical acts of bravery to emotional resilience in the face of difficult situations. Example(s); The courage of Rani Lakshmibai…
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Courage
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Courage
Gandhiji’s defiant Salt March to Dandi.; Narendra Kumar, the IPS officer of 2009 batch, fought with exemplary courage against the Mining Mafias in Morena, Madhya Pradesh. Quote(s); “Courage to accept and dedication to improve are two keys to success.”; “Courage is the most important of all the virtues because without courage, you can’t practise any other virtue consistently.” (Maya Angelou)
4.12 Fortitude
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Fortitude
Fortitude is the mental and emotional strength to endure adversity, hardship or difficult situations with resilience.; Fortitude refers to a quality that enables us to face life’s difficulties with courage, perseverance and a deep sense of inner strength. Example(s); A single parent juggling multiple responsibilities and battling fffinancial, emotional, and practical obstacles and associated stress.; A soldier with…
4.13 Responsiveness
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Responsiveness
Responsiveness is the quality of reacting quickly and positively to situations, needs, or changes, showing attentiveness and prompt action.; It is the quality of being quick to respond and sensitive to the needs of others. It involves being attentive, receptive and adaptive to the needs, concerns or feedback of others whether in personal, professional or organizational contexts. Example(s); Shivdeep Waman Lande, the…
4.14 Openness
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Openness
Openness refers to the state of being Transparent, Inclusive, and Accessible. Openness promotes a Culture of Trust, Accountability, and leads to social and economic development by increasing access to knowledge and opportunities, enhancing innovation, and creating more inclusive societies.; Openness is the willingness to consider new ideas, experiences and viewpoints and maintaining a receptive attitude to change…
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Openness
Quote(s); “Only those who will risk going too far can possibly find out how far one can go.” (T.S. Eliot)
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Openness
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4.15 Selflessness
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Selflessness
Selflessness refers to the quality of putting others’ needs before one’s own, prioritizing the welfare of others over personal gain.; In a selflessness approach, the benefit to society is maximised, as decisions and actions are driven by the welfare of the community rather than personal gain.; Selflessness can manifest itself in many different ways such as acts of kindness, generosity, patriotism and altruism. It is…
4.17 Responsibility
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Responsibility
Responsibility refers to the duty to deal with something or someone, acknowledging the consequences of one’s actions.; Responsibility refers to the willingness and ability to accept the consequences of one’s choices and to fulfil the duties and expectations associated with a particular role, position or situation.
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Responsibility
Example(s); Government of India’s handling of COVID-19 displayed a strong sense of responsibility towards public health and economic recovery.; Citizen’s responsibility to obey the law, pay taxes and vote etc.; Corporate Firm’s Corporate Social Responsibility
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Responsibility
Quote(s); “The price of greatness is responsibility.” (Winston Churchill); “You can’t escape the responsibility of tomorrow by evading it today.” (Abraham Lincoln)
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Responsibility
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4.18 Temperance
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Temperance
Temperance is a personality trait that refers to the ability to exercise Self-Control and Moderation in one’s behaviour and avoiding Impulsive Behaviour especially when it comes to indulging.; Temperance allows individuals to maintain balance and avoid extremes. Example(s); Mahatma Gandhi exhibited temperance through his practice of non-violence (Ahimsa) and self- restraint. Even under extreme provocation, he…
4.19 Prudence
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Prudence
Prudence is the ability to make wise and careful decisions, taking into consideration the potential consequences and long-term effects of one’s actions.; Prudence refers to the quality of being careful, cautious, and wise in making decisions and taking actions. Use good judgement and foresight to anticipate potential risks and avoiding hasty or impulsive decisions make one prudent. Example(s); The prudence of…
4.20 Spirit of Service
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Spirit of Service
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4.21 Dedication to Public Service
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Dedication to Public Service
Dedication to public service is the commitment to serve society and contribute to the welfare of the community, often at the expense of personal interests or comfort.; It refers to commitment of a public servant towards his/duty to ensure the welfare of the public.
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Dedication to Public Service
Example(s); S. R. Sankaran, IAS, was known as the People’s Man as he led to the Abolition of Bonded Labour and did a lot for the welfare of marginalised communities.; Kiran Bedi (1st woman IPS) transformed the Tihar jail from a ‘Human Zoo’ to a ‘Human Dwelling’ through her Dedication towards Work. Quote(s); “The price of success is hard work, dedication to the job at hand, and the determination that whether we win…
4.22 Perseverance
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Perseverance
Perseverance is the ability to persist in doing something despite difficulties, obstacles or delays in achieving success.; Perseverance involves a combination of determination, persistence, and resilience in the face of difficulties or failures. It is an important trait for achieving success in various fields. Example(s); The perseverance of India’s freedom fighters despite British repression and their continued…
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Perseverance
Quote(s); “It always seems impossible until it is done.” (Nelson Mandela); “Perseverance is not a long race; it is many short races one after the other.” (Walter Elliot); “Every work has to pass through hundreds of difficulties before succeeding. Those that persevere will see the light, sooner or later.” (Swami Vivekananda)
4.23 Discipline
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Discipline
Discipline refers to the practice of maintaining control over one’s behavior and actions, adhering to rules, standards, and ethical principles to achieve goals.; Discipline refers to a set of Rules or a Code of Conduct that one follows in order to achieve a certain goal or maintain a certain standard and balance.
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Discipline
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Discipline
It is the practice of Self-Control and the ability to adhere to the accepted Rules or Standards even when faced with distractions. Example(s); Operation Sindoor (2025) showcased the Indian Army’s discipline through precise, restrained actions, coordinated multi-force strategies, adherence to rules of engagement and effective use of technology, ensuring national security and regional stability. Quote(s); “He who…
4.25 Sympathy
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Sympathy
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4.26 Empathy
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Empathy
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person, recognizing their emotional state and responding with care and compassion.; The ability to understand and share the feelings of another person by putting oneself in their shoes. (Equality in mental state) Empathy can be cultivated through various approaches, including:; Role Models:; Highlighting empathetic officers and leaders who…
4.27 Compassion
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Compassion
Compassion is the emotional response of sympathy and concern for the suffering of others, often accompanied by the desire to help alleviate that suffering.; It is feeling the pain of others and wanting to help them in relieving their pain. Compassion is Empathy in action.
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Compassion
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Compassion
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4.29 Social Capital
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Social Capital
Social capital is the network of relationships, trust, and norms that enable people to work together to achieve shared goals.; Networks, trust, and shared values that enable individuals or groups to cooperate for mutual benefit and societal well-being.
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Social Capital
Example; In corporate life, strong social capital within a company boosts collaboration and innovation, improving overall performance.; Social capital for a politician is the trust, goodwill, and network of relationships they build with constituents, colleagues, and the broader community. It is a crucial asset for political effectiveness, public influence, and long-term success.
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Social Capital
Quote; “Trust is the glue of life. It’s the most essential ingredient in effective communication.” (Stephen Covey); “The greatest capital of a nation is the social trust that its citizens place in each other.” (Abraham Lincoln)
4.30 Sarvodaya
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Sarvodaya
Sarvodaya means “welfare of all” or “universal uplift,” an ideal of social progress focusing on the well- being of every individual in society.; The philosophy of universal upliftment and welfare of all, central to Gandhian thought.
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Sarvodaya
Example; Vinoba Bhave’s Bhoodan Movement (land gift movement) in India embodied Sarvodaya, promoting land redistribution for the welfare of the poor.; Modern NGOs and cooperatives in India and abroad that focus on inclusive growth, collective decisionmaking, and sustainable development embody Sarvodaya principles.
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Sarvodaya
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Sarvodaya
Quote; “The welfare of all depends on the welfare of the individual.” (Vinoba Bhave); “I shall work for an India in which the poorest shall feel that it is their country, in whose making they have an effective voice.” (Mahatma Gandhi)
4.31 Antyodaya
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Antyodaya
Antyodaya refers to the upliftment of the last person in society, focusing on the needs of the poorest and most marginalized communities.; The principle of uplifting the last and most disadvantaged person in society, ensuring no one is left behind. Example; Indian government schemes like Antyodaya Anna Yojana targeting food security for the poorest families.; Organizations and individuals who focus on providing…
4.32 Character
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Character
Character refers to the mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual, shaping their actions and responses to various situations.; Character defines a person’s Moral and Ethical Identity as a result of certain qualities, values, and traits that one possesses. Example(s); The character of Karna in the Mahabharata, whose loyalty to Duryodhana and adherence to his personal code of honor defined his actions…
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Character
Quote(s); “Character is like a tree and reputation is like a shadow. The shadow is what we think of it; the tree is the real thing.” (Abraham Lincoln)
4.33 Rationality
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Rationality
Rationality refers to the ability to think logically, make decisions based on reason and evidence, and avoid biases or emotions in decision-making.; Rationality refers to the ability to think critically, weigh different options, and make informed decisions in a logical and reasoned way i.e. based on evidence and facts. Example(s); Public Welfare schemes (PMJDY, Digital India, Skill India etc.) are only unfolded…
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Rationality
Quote(s); “Rationality is the recognition of the fact that nothing can alter the truth and nothing can take precedence over that act of perceiving it.” (Ayn Rand)
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Rationality
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6.1 Ethical Governance
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Ethical Governance
Ethical governance refers to the practice of upholding moral principles and values in public administration, ensuring decisions are made in the best interests of society with transparency and accountability.; It takes into account the set of Rules, Practices, and Processes driven by Moral principles like Probity, Honesty, Integrity, Transparency etc.
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Ethical Governance
Example(s); Reforms like Mission Karmayogi aim to build efficiency, accountability, and transparency in bureaucracy with the larger aim of providing ethical governance.; CPGRAMS Portal of Union Government and Sampark Portal of Rajasthan Government for Effective Grievance Redressal .
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Ethical Governance
Quote(s); “I believe that as a part of good governance, all agencies should be reviewing regulations and cleaning up those that may be outdated, redundant, or unnecessary.” (Seth Moulton)
6.2 Ethics in Public Administration
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Ethics in Public Administration
It encompasses all activities that aims to Achieve/Implement public policy.; It means Which Values should guide the conduct of Civil servants and What should be ethical principles?; Quality of service; Empathy/Compassion/Tolerance ; Innovation & Initiative ; Efficiency/ Outcome Oriented ; Responsibility/Responsiveness ; Actionable Accountability ; Transparency and Citizen friendliness.; Central Services conduct…
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Ethics in Public Administration
Problems of Ethics in Indian administration; Lack of Ethical Literacy.(Majority of decision based on Rule books); Poor Reward and Punishment Mechanism.(Disregarding Merit).; Secrecy in Indian Administration (Despite of RTI ACT,2005).; Lack of proper Grievance Redressal Mechanism.; Political superiority (As Bureaucrats are accountable to their political masters; Thus ill decision making); Lack of proper Whistleblower…
6.3 Good Governance
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Good Governance
As per World bank in Governance and development Report “Good governance is synonymous with sound development management.”; It defined Good Governance as “the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development”.
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Good Governance
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Good Governance
UNDP defines good governance as governing systems that are capable, responsive, inclusive, and transparent.; Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law.; It tells about Quality of Governance; should be pro-people and citizen friendly.
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Good Governance
Example(s); The implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India is an example of good governance, where the government aimed at simplifying tax systems and improving compliance.
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Good Governance
Quote(s); “Righteousness is the foundation stone of peace and good governance”.(Confucius)
6.4 Law
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Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines that are enforced through social institutions to regulate behavior and maintain order within a society.; Law is an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has care of the community, and promulgated(St Thomas Aquinas); Types: Statutory, Natural law, Divine law, etc.; In general ethics and law not in conflict with each other(Due to common good).; Ethics provides…
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Law
Quote(s); “Good people do not need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while bad people will find a way around the laws” (Plato); “Law is not law, if it violates the principles of eternal justice.” (Lydia Maria Child); “The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom.”(John Locke)
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Law
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6.5 Rule
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Rule
A rule is a prescribed guide for conduct or action, typically set by an authority to ensure order and consistency within a group or society.; Formed on the basis of Law; it is a subset of law; Flexible; and can be changed by Law enforcers (Executives) ; but in general Law can only be changed by legislature. It is generally the regulations or procedures that govern the conduct within the specific area of activity. It…
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Rule
Example(s); Rules of conduct of business in the Houses of the Parliament regulate the manner and procedure governing the proceedings of the House.; The Model Code of Conduct for Political Parties and Candidates ensures that elections are free from manipulation and bias, promoting fair competition and the integrity of the electoral process.
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Rule
Quote(s); “Rules are for the obedience of fools and the guidance of wise men.” (Douglas Bader); “The rule is perfect in all its parts, and the perfect rule is as much a work of art as a work of science.” (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)
6.6 Conscience
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Conscience
Conscience is the internal sense of right and wrong, a moral compass that guides an individual’s decisions and actions based on ethical principles.; It is an individual judgement regarding the morality of one’s actions. It creates a sense of guilt for committing something wrong and pride for right. Thus,It is a Moral compass that gives Guidance , Knowledge and Understanding of what is right and what is wrong.; Human…
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Conscience
Example(s); A BSF jawan in Jaipur, Jitendra Singh refused to accept dowry worth Rs 11 lakh and instead, took Rs 11 and coconut as a token.; Durga Shakti Nagpal ( IAS Officer) was motivated by her Conscience to take actions against politically supported Sand Mafia despite death threats .
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Conscience
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Conscience
Before the war, Yudhishthira seeks counsel from Krishna, Bhishma, and Vidura, expressing his doubts about the righteousness of war and his role in it. His willingness to question his own motives highlights the importance of self-reflection and conscience.
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Conscience
Quote(s); “There is a higher court than courts of justice and that is the court of conscience. It supersedes all other courts.” (Mahatma Gandhi); “Labour to keep alive in your chest that little spark of Celestial fire, called Conscience” (George Washington)
6.7 Corporate Governance
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Corporate Governance
Corporate governance refers to the systems, principles, and processes by which companies are directed and controlled, ensuring accountability, fairness, and transparency in business operations.; According to Cadbury Committee, Corporate governance is the “system by which companies are directed and controlled.”; The features of corporate governance can be listed as follows:; Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)…
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Corporate Governance
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Corporate Governance
Issues of CG in India; Non-adherence to set of ethical standards like business ethics (Business with moral vices like black marketing, adulteration, tax evasion, lobbying, etc.); Coal block scam, 2G scam; Recent Patanjali case involving misleading advertisements and product quality issues.; Family-owned businesses in India in private sectors is very high (Dominance of family members in BODs); In the public sector…
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Corporate Governance
SEBI Recommendations; Board of a listed company may be required to ensure that plans are in place for the orderly succession for appointments to the board and senior management.; Making Whistle Blower Mechanism a compulsory requirement; Separating the position of Chairman and that of the Managing Director/CEO.; Enabling shareholders to electronically cast their vote.; Appointment of independent directors by minority…
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Corporate Governance
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Corporate Governance
Formal channel for information sharing between company and promoters.; Public sector companies governed by listing regulations, not by nodal ministries.; Penalise auditors for lapses.; SEBI should be empowered to grant immunity to whistleblowers.
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Corporate Governance
Example(s); Warren Buffett is known for his Ethical Business Strategy based on 3 Ps- Principal, Purpose and People.; JIO did not fire many employees during Covid19 ;instead cut their salary (Compassionate capitalism).; Vishal Sikka resigned from Infosys amidst differences with the board and founders, and Cyrus Mistry was dismissed from Tata Sons due to governance issues and performance concerns.
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Corporate Governance
Quote(s); “Corporate governance should be done more through principles than rules.” (Adi Godrej).; “Corporate Governance is beyond the realm of law. It stems from culture and mindset of management, and cannot be regulated by legislation alone. Corporate governance deals with conducting the affairs of a company such that there is fairness to all stakeholders and that its actions benefit the greatest number of…
6.8 Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR)
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Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR)
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a business model and management concept in which companies integrate social and environmental concerns into their operations and interactions with stakeholders, going beyond the sole pursuit of profit.; CSR is a process with the aim to embrace responsibility for the company’s actions and encourage a positive impact through its activities on the environment, consumers…
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Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR)
Example(s); Tata Trust’s support of institutions like TISS and IISc Bangalore, Reliance’s Project Drishti.; Hindustan Unilever’s (HUL) Project Shakti: Empowering rural women through entrepreneurship opportunities.; ITC’s e-Choupal Initiative: Providing agricultural information and market access to farmers.; Mahindra & Mahindra’s Nanhi Kali Initiative: Supporting the education of underprivileged girls.
6.9 Nepotism
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Nepotism
Nepotism is the practice of favoring relatives or friends by giving them positions of power or influence, especially in the workplace or government.; It refers to the misuse of one’s power or position to extend an unfair advantage to a closed one.
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Nepotism
Example(s); A political leader appointing his son as the president of party instead of internal elections and fair chance to other party members.
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Nepotism
Quote(s); “Despotism favours the despot, nepotism favours the despot’s genes.” (Danielle Tremblay)
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Nepotism
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8.2 Seven Sins and Sarvodaya Approach of Mahatma Gandhi
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Seven Sins and Sarvodaya Approach of Mahatma Gandhi
The Seven Principles of Public Life given by Lord Nolan/ Nolan Principles
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Seven Sins and Sarvodaya Approach of Mahatma Gandhi
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Ethics revision note: definition, example, quote or application
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Moral Reasoning
Moral reasoning involves the process of making decisions based on ethical principles, such as fairness, justice, and rights, to resolve ethical dilemmas.; The process of evaluating right and wrong using ethical principles and logical thinking to guide actions and decisions. Example; In Indian judicial reforms, judges use moral reasoning to decide on cases related to fundamental rights and social justice.; In India…
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Moral Intuition
Moral intuition refers to the immediate understanding of what is right or wrong without the need for conscious reasoning.; Immediate, instinctive sense of right and wrong, often guiding actions without conscious deliberation. Example; A business leader immediately recognizing the unethical nature of a corporate deal and opting out despite potential profits.; Feeling compelled to help a stranger in distress without…
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Accountability
Accountability is the obligation of individuals or organizations to accept responsibility for their actions, decisions, and their outcomes, both positive and negative.; Accountability refers to the state of being responsible for one’s actions, decisions, and performance, and being answerable for the outcomes of those actions.; Accountability ensures the government serves the people with integrity and transparency.…
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Spirit of Service
The spirit of service is the dedication to helping others without expecting personal gain, often seen in acts of compassion and social responsibility.; Selfless commitment to the welfare of others, prioritizing public good over personal gain. Example; Civil servants working selflessly during disasters to aid affected communities in India. Quote; “The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of…
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Tolerance
Tolerance is the ability or willingness to accept or endure people, opinions, or behaviors that one may disagree with, without resorting to prejudice or hostility.; Tolerance is Respect, Acceptance and Appreciation of the rich Diversity of our world’s Cultures, our forms of expression and ways of being human. (UNESCO). Example(s); India’s tradition of religious tolerance, where multiple faiths coexist peacefully, as…
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Sympathy
Sympathy is the feeling of compassion or pity for another person’s misfortune, often accompanied by a desire to help or comfort them.; Sympathy is feeling care and concern for someone in distress, recognizing their emotions, and wanting to see them feel better. Example(s); In his Bachpan Bachao Andolan (Save Childhood Movement), Kailash Satyarthi has shown unparalleled sympathy towards marginalized children who are…
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Antipathy and Apathy
Antipathy: It is the feeling of strong dislike or hostility towards someone or something.; Apathy: It is the state of being indifferent towards someone or something. It is marked by absence of concern, feeling, emotions, inclination, etc. towards something. Example(s); Antipathy:; The Cold War (1947–1991) saw intense antipathy between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, driven by ideological differences resulting in…
Facts and figures for this syllabus heading.