Highlight the major contributions of the reform movements in pre-independent India

Social and gender contributions

The campaign against sati (Rammohan Roy, 1829 abolition) and Vidyasagar’s widow remarriage work made women’s bodily fate a public legislative question. Age of consent debates, however contested, put child marriage on the table. Savitribai and Jotirao Phule contributed schools for girls and for those excluded by caste, which is a deeper contribution than bhadralok petitioning. These moves built the later ground for Hindu Code and for constitutional equality.

Religious and caste contributions

Brahmo Samaj and later Prarthana currents contributed a critique of idolatry and caste rigidity among elites. Arya Samaj contributed shuddhi, vernacular education, and a militant reform of Hindu practice that also fed majoritarian politics. Aligarh and related Muslim modernism contributed English-modern education for a Muslim elite (and a contested political legacy). Singh Sabha reform recast Sikh institutions. Narayana Guru in Kerala contributed a temple-opening, ‘one caste, one religion, one god’ attack on pollution that massified reform beyond the salon. Ambedkar’s pre-1947 work is both Dalit movement and reform: Mahad, temple, and a programme to annihilate caste.

Missionary and anti-missionary contests contributed print, schools and a new competitive public. Temperance, anti-nautch and sanitising campaigns contributed a middle-class moral code with both emancipatory and controlling sides for women.

National and institutional contributions

Reform produced associations, colleges, presses and laws that nationalism later used. It contributed the idea that custom is criticisable. M. N. Srinivas’s sanskritization and westernization both run through these movements: some copied Sanskritic respectability; some copied missionary education.

• Reform also contributed new subjectivities: the widow as a person who may remarry, the lower-caste student as a person who may read, the community as something that can be purified or annihilated. Those subjectivities later filled legislatures. The nationalist movement borrowed this moral energy and sometimes asked women and Dalits to wait. Highlighting contributions therefore includes that tension: reform made the social question public; it did not finish it.

Limits are part of the highlight. Many movements were upper-caste, male and urban. They often sought a purified community, not annihilation of caste. Peasants and Adivasis had parallel risings that textbooks under-name as reform. Contribution is still large: without this pre-independence work, independent India’s women’s law, Dalit constitutionalism and public education would have had a thinner soil.