Methods
Markers and lab methods
Methods answers score when you name the tool, the molecule, and one use (forensic, disease, phylogeny).
- Genetic marker: a heritable DNA or classical trait used to distinguish people or populations.
- RFLP: restriction enzymes cut different lengths. RAPD: random primers, cruder population scans.
- PCR / sequencing: amplify and read bases; VNTRs/STRs for identity.
- qRT-PCR: RNA → cDNA → amplify; diagnostic (viral load teaching use).
- CRISPR–Cas9: gRNA finds a sequence; Cas9 cuts; cell repairs — editing, not a moral blank cheque.
Key points
Immunology in the lab
- Antibody: two heavy + two light chains; paratope binds antigen epitope.
- ELISA and related assays: antigen–antibody for diagnosis; slower/costlier than some rapid tests, more specific in teaching contrast.
Key points
Applications
- Forensics and disaster victim ID (DNA / HLA).
- Carrier screening and prenatal diagnosis — consent and stigma first.
- Phylogeny and migration (mtDNA, Y, autosomal clocks ~70 kyr out-of-Africa teaching figure).
- Industry enzymes are a side use; keep UPSC weight on human variation and ethics.
WRAP Exams coaching notes for UPSC Anthropology optional. Pair with the official syllabus when you need every heading in order.